THE TEACHER OF THE BOOK—YET UNABLE TO READ IT?
MAINSTREAM SUNNI ILLITERACY DOCTRINE VERSUS THE IMAMI SHIA POSITION
The disagreement is not about whether Prophet Muhammad ﷺ attended a human school. All Muslims agree that he did not learn the Qur’an from a rabbi, monk, poet, philosopher or ordinary teacher. He did not study the Torah and Gospel and then manufacture the Qur’an from them. His knowledge came from Allah.
The actual disagreement is this: Was Allah’s final Messenger permanently incapable of reading written words and unable to write even one letter?
The mainstream Sunni doctrine says that the Prophet ﷺ could not read written material, did not know how to write and remained in that condition throughout his life. Authentic Imami Shia hadith rejects this limitation and establishes that the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله could read written material. Major Shia scholars further explain that his not publicly writing does not prove inability; he possessed divinely granted knowledge and may have deliberately refrained from writing for a religious purpose.
The flaw is not in the Messenger of Allah ﷺ. The flaw lies in transforming “he did not learn from human teachers” into “he was permanently incapable of reading and writing.” These are not the same statement.
PART ONE: THE MAINSTREAM SUNNI DOCTRINE
1. SAHIH AL-BUKHARI: “HE DID NOT KNOW HOW TO WRITE”
During the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, Sahih al-Bukhari reports:
فَأَخَذَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ الْكِتَابَ، وَلَيْسَ يُحْسِنُ يَكْتُبُ، فَكَتَبَ: هَذَا مَا قَاضَى عَلَيْهِ مُحَمَّدُ بْنُ عَبْدِ اللَّهِ.
“The Messenger of Allah ﷺ took the document, although he did not know how to write, and wrote: ‘This is what Muhammad ibn Abdullah agreed upon.’”
Reference: Sahih al-Bukhari, Kitab al-Maghazi, report of Hudaybiyyah and Umrat al-Qada; also Sahih Muslim, hadith 1783. Hadith numbering in al-Bukhari differs between editions.
Grading: Sahih.
The crucial phrase is:
وَلَيْسَ يُحْسِنُ يَكْتُبُ
“He did not know how to write.”
This does not merely state that the Prophet ﷺ did not usually write. It attributes to him an absence of ability. Yet the same sentence immediately says:
فَكَتَبَ
“So he wrote.”
Mainstream Sunni commentators reinterpreted “he wrote” to mean “he ordered someone else to write,” because their prior understanding of “ummi” required the Prophet ﷺ to remain unable to write. The text says, “He wrote.” The doctrine replies, “He could not write.” The apparent wording is therefore redirected to preserve the doctrine.
2. THE FIRST REVELATION: “I AM NOT A READER”
The report of the first revelation states:
فَجَاءَهُ الْمَلَكُ فَقَالَ: اقْرَأْ. قَالَ: مَا أَنَا بِقَارِئٍ.
“The angel came to him and said: ‘Read.’ He replied: ‘I am not a reader.’”
References: Sahih al-Bukhari, Kitab Bad al-Wahy; Sahih Muslim, Kitab al-Iman, hadith 160.
Grading: Muttafaqun alayh.
This narration is often used to support literal illiteracy. However, the phrase مَا أَنَا بِقَارِئٍ can also be understood as “What should I read?” Therefore, it is not decisive by itself. The clearer Sunni evidence is the explicit statement that he did not know writing.
3. “WE ARE AN UNLETTERED NATION”
The Prophet ﷺ is reported to have said:
إِنَّا أُمَّةٌ أُمِّيَّةٌ، لَا نَكْتُبُ وَلَا نَحْسُبُ، الشَّهْرُ هَكَذَا وَهَكَذَا.
“We are an unlettered nation. We neither write nor calculate. The month is like this and this.”
References: Sahih al-Bukhari, hadith 1913; Sahih Muslim, hadith 1080.
Grading: Muttafaqun alayh.
The immediate subject is calculating the lunar month. The narration describes the general practice of the community and does not logically prove that every Arab individual was incapable of reading and writing. Nevertheless, mainstream Sunni commentators used it to define the title “al-Nabi al-Ummi” as a Prophet who neither read written material nor knew writing.
4. AL-QURTUBI: HE NEVER WROTE EVEN ONE LETTER
Al-Qurtubi gives his preferred judgement:
قُلْتُ: هَذَا هُوَ الصَّحِيحُ فِي الْبَابِ، أَنَّهُ مَا كَتَبَ وَلَا حَرْفًا وَاحِدًا، وَإِنَّمَا أَمَرَ مَنْ يَكْتُبُ، وَكَذَلِكَ مَا قَرَأَ وَلَا تَهَجَّى.
“I say: This is the correct position concerning this matter: he did not write even a single letter. Rather, he instructed another person to write. Likewise, he neither read written material nor spelled it out.”
Reference: Al-Qurtubi, al-Jami li-Ahkam al-Qur’an, commentary on Qur’an 29:48.
His words are explicit:
مَا كَتَبَ وَلَا حَرْفًا وَاحِدًا
“He did not write even one letter.”
مَا قَرَأَ وَلَا تَهَجَّى
“He neither read nor spelled.”
This is far more than saying that the Prophet ﷺ had no human teacher. It portrays Allah’s final Messenger as unable to read a written sentence, spell its letters or write even one letter.
5. IBN KATHIR: HE REMAINED UNABLE TO WRITE THROUGHOUT HIS LIFE
Ibn Kathir writes:
وَهَكَذَا كَانَ، صَلَوَاتُ اللَّهِ وَسَلَامُهُ عَلَيْهِ، دَائِمًا أَبَدًا، لَا يُحْسِنُ الْكِتَابَةَ، وَلَا يَخُطُّ سَطْرًا وَلَا حَرْفًا بِيَدِهِ، بَلْ كَانَ لَهُ كُتَّابٌ يَكْتُبُونَ بَيْنَ يَدَيْهِ الْوَحْيَ وَالرَّسَائِلَ إِلَى الْأَقَالِيمِ.
“The Messenger of Allah ﷺ remained permanently in this condition: he did not know writing and did not write a line or a single letter with his hand. Rather, he had scribes who wrote revelation and letters to the regions in his presence.”
Reference: Ibn Kathir, Tafsir al-Qur’an al-Azim, commentary on Qur’an 29:48.
The decisive wording is:
لَا يُحْسِنُ الْكِتَابَةَ
“He did not know how to write.”
According to Ibn Kathir, this was not limited to the period before revelation. The Prophet ﷺ remained unable to write throughout his life.
6. IBN TAYMIYYAH: HE DID NOT READ WRITTEN MATERIAL
Ibn Taymiyyah states:
فَإِنَّ أُمِّيَّتَهُ لَمْ تَكُنْ مِنْ جِهَةِ فَقْدِ الْعِلْمِ وَالْقِرَاءَةِ عَنْ ظَهْرِ قَلْبٍ، فَإِنَّهُ إِمَامُ الْأَئِمَّةِ فِي هَذَا، وَإِنَّمَا كَانَ مِنْ جِهَةِ أَنَّهُ لَا يَكْتُبُ وَلَا يَقْرَأُ مَكْتُوبًا.
“His unletteredness was not due to a lack of knowledge or recitation from memory, for he was the leader of all leaders in that. Rather, it was because he did not write and did not read written material.”
Reference: Ibn Taymiyyah, Majmu al-Fatawa, vol. 25, p. 172.
The statement is explicit:
لَا يَقْرَأُ مَكْتُوبًا
“He did not read written material.”
Ibn Taymiyyah attempts to portray this as a miracle because the Prophet ﷺ received knowledge without using books. But this confuses two entirely different propositions:
“He did not require books to acquire divine knowledge.”
“He was incapable of understanding written words.”
The first is a miracle. The second is an unnecessary limitation. Allah could teach His Messenger without human books while simultaneously granting him the ability to understand every written word. Divine teaching and literacy are not opposites.
7. IBN HAJAR: HE NEEDED SOMEONE TO SHOW HIM THE LOCATION OF THE WORDS
Ibn Hajar writes regarding the Hudaybiyyah document:
إِنَّهُ مَا احْتَاجَ إِلَى أَنْ يُرِيَهُ مَوْضِعَ الْكَلِمَةِ الَّتِي امْتَنَعَ عَلِيٌّ مِنْ مَحْوِهَا إِلَّا لِكَوْنِهِ كَانَ لَا يُحْسِنُ الْكِتَابَةَ.
“He needed to be shown the location of the expression which Ali refused to erase only because he did not know writing.”
Reference: Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani, Fath al-Bari, commentary on the Hudaybiyyah narration.
According to this interpretation, the final Prophet ﷺ could not independently locate the written title “Messenger of Allah” on the treaty and needed another person to show him where it was written. This is not stated by the Qur’an. It is a conclusion imposed through one interpretation of the word “ummi.”
8. AL-NAWAWI AND QADI IYAD: THE MAINSTREAM POSITION DENIED THAT HE LATER WROTE
Al-Nawawi transmits from Qadi Iyad:
وَذَهَبَ الْأَكْثَرُونَ إِلَى مَنْعِ هَذَا كُلِّهِ.
“The majority rejected all of this.”
They argued that the possibility that the Prophet ﷺ later wrote was contradicted by Allah describing him as the ummi Prophet, Qur’an 29:48 and the hadith:
إِنَّا أُمَّةٌ أُمِّيَّةٌ لَا نَكْتُبُ وَلَا نَحْسُبُ.
“We are an unlettered nation; we neither write nor calculate.”
They therefore interpreted “he wrote” as:
مَعْنَاهُ: أَمَرَ بِالْكِتَابَةِ.
“Its meaning is that he ordered it to be written.”
Reference: Al-Nawawi, Sharh Sahih Muslim, commentary on the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, quoting Qadi Iyad.
Once again, the report said, “He wrote.” The doctrine required, “He did not know how to write.” The report was reinterpreted to protect the doctrine.
9. AL-TABARI: HE DID NOT READ OR WRITE
Al-Tabari explains Qur’an 29:48:
﴿وَمَا كُنْتَ تَتْلُو﴾ يَعْنِي: تَقْرَأُ... ﴿وَلَا تَخُطُّهُ بِيَمِينِكَ﴾ يَقُولُ: وَلَمْ تَكُنْ تَكْتُبُ بِيَمِينِكَ، وَلَكِنَّكَ كُنْتَ أُمِّيًّا.
“‘You did not recite,’ meaning: you did not read… ‘Nor did you write it with your right hand,’ meaning: you did not write with your right hand. Rather, you were unlettered.”
Reference: Al-Tabari, Jami al-Bayan, commentary on Qur’an 29:48.
He also transmits:
كَانَ نَبِيُّ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ أُمِّيًّا، لَا يَقْرَأُ شَيْئًا وَلَا يَكْتُبُ.
“The Prophet of Allah ﷺ was unlettered; he did not read anything and did not write.”
10. AL-BAGHAWI: HE DID NOT READ, WRITE OR CALCULATE
Al-Baghawi reports:
كَانَ أُمِّيًّا لَا يَكْتُبُ وَلَا يَقْرَأُ وَلَا يَحْسُبُ.
“He was unlettered: he did not write, read or calculate.”
Reference: Al-Baghawi, Maalim al-Tanzil, commentary on Qur’an 7:157.
11. MODERN SUNNI CONFIRMATION
Egypt’s Dar al-Ifta defines “ummi” as:
الْأُمِّيُّ فِي كَلَامِ الْعَرَبِ: هُوَ الَّذِي لَا يَكْتُبُ وَلَا يَقْرَأُ الْمَكْتُوبَ.
“In Arabic usage, the ummi is the person who does not write and does not read written material.”
Reference: Dar al-Ifta al-Misriyyah, “The Meaning of Ummiyyah Regarding the Prophet,” published October 31, 2023.
This is therefore not merely an abandoned medieval interpretation. It remains officially defended.
12. A TENSION WITHIN SAHIH AL-BUKHARI AND SAHIH MUSLIM
During his final illness, the Prophet ﷺ said:
ائْتُونِي أَكْتُبْ لَكُمْ كِتَابًا لَنْ تَضِلُّوا بَعْدَهُ أَبَدًا.
“Bring me writing material so that I may write for you a document after which you will never go astray.”
References: Sahih al-Bukhari, report of the Prophet’s final illness; Sahih Muslim, hadith 1637.
The expression is:
أَكْتُبْ لَكُمْ
“So that I may write for you.”
This wording can linguistically include ordering a scribe to write, so it does not independently prove physical writing. Nevertheless, it demonstrates that the Sunni hadith corpus repeatedly attributes writing to the Prophet ﷺ, while later interpretation continually redirects the apparent wording because it has already concluded that he could not write.
THE MAINSTREAM SUNNI IMAGE
Taken together, mainstream Sunni authorities portray the Prophet ﷺ as someone who did not read written material, did not spell written words, did not know how to write, never wrote even one letter, remained unable to write throughout his life and needed another person to identify the location of words upon a treaty.
The question is not whether an unlettered person can possess intelligence or receive revelation. Of course he can. The real question is: Where does the Qur’an state that the greatest Messenger, whom Allah personally taught and appointed as the universal teacher of humanity, was permanently incapable of understanding written words?
It does not.
PART TWO: THE IMAMI SHIA POSITION
The Imami Shia position protects both truths: the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله did not acquire knowledge from human teachers or previous scriptures, and he was not permanently incapable of reading written material.
1. SAHIH IMAMI HADITH: THE PROPHET COULD READ
Imam al-Sadiq عليه السلام said:
كَانَ النَّبِيُّ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَآلِهِ يَقْرَأُ الْكِتَابَ وَلَا يَكْتُبُ.
“The Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله used to read written material, but he did not write.”
References: Shaykh al-Saduq, Ilal al-Sharai, p. 53 in older editions and approximately p. 126 in some modern editions; al-Majlisi, Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 16, p. 132.
Grading: Sahih.
Ayatollah Shaykh Jafar al-Subhani writes:
وَالْحَدِيثُ صَحِيحٌ، رِجَالُهُ كُلُّهُمْ ثِقَاتٌ بِالاتِّفَاقِ.
“The hadith is authentic; all of its narrators are trustworthy by agreement.”
Reference: Jafar al-Subhani, Mafahim al-Qur’an, vol. 3, p. 342.
The authentic wording is decisive:
يَقْرَأُ الْكِتَابَ
“He read written material.”
This directly contradicts the mainstream Sunni claim:
لَا يَقْرَأُ مَكْتُوبًا
“He did not read written material.”
The narration then states:
وَلَا يَكْتُبُ
“He did not write.”
It does not state:
لَا يُحْسِنُ الْكِتَابَةَ
“He did not know writing.”
Nor does it state:
لَا يَقْدِرُ عَلَى الْكِتَابَةِ
“He was incapable of writing.”
The difference between “he did not” and “he could not” is the heart of the disagreement.
2. ANOTHER SUPPORTING REPORT: HE WAS UMMI, YET HE READ
Imam al-Sadiq عليه السلام said:
كَانَ مِمَّا مَنَّ اللَّهُ عَزَّ وَجَلَّ بِهِ عَلَى نَبِيِّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَآلِهِ أَنَّهُ كَانَ أُمِّيًّا، لَا يَكْتُبُ، وَيَقْرَأُ الْكِتَابَ.
“Among the favours Allah bestowed upon His Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله was that he was ummi: he did not write, yet he could read written material.”
References: Shaykh al-Saduq, Ilal al-Sharai; al-Majlisi, Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 16, p. 132.
Grading: Not technically sahih because al-Hasan ibn Ziyad al-Sayqal lacks explicit classical authentication. However, Ayatollah al-Subhani considers it worthy of consideration because Aban, one of the Companions of Consensus, narrates from him.
This report explicitly combines the title “ummi” with the ability to read. It therefore destroys the simplistic equation:
Ummi = incapable of reading.
3. IMAM AL-BAQIR عليه السلام: “THEY HAVE LIED”
Another important Imami report directly challenges the claim that the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله could neither read nor write:
عَنْ عَلِيِّ بْنِ حَسَّانَ، وَعَلِيِّ بْنِ أَسْبَاطٍ وَغَيْرِهِ، رَفَعَهُ عَنْ أَبِي جَعْفَرٍ عليه السلام قَالَ: قُلْتُ لَهُ: إِنَّ النَّاسَ يَزْعُمُونَ أَنَّ رَسُولَ اللَّهِ صلى الله عليه وآله لَمْ يَكْتُبْ وَلَا يَقْرَأْ. فَقَالَ: كَذَبُوا، لَعَنَهُمُ اللَّهُ! أَنَّى يَكُونُ ذَلِكَ؟ وَقَدْ قَالَ اللَّهُ عَزَّ وَجَلَّ: هُوَ الَّذِي بَعَثَ فِي الْأُمِّيِّينَ رَسُولًا مِنْهُمْ يَتْلُو عَلَيْهِمْ آيَاتِهِ وَيُزَكِّيهِمْ وَيُعَلِّمُهُمُ الْكِتَابَ وَالْحِكْمَةَ وَإِنْ كَانُوا مِنْ قَبْلُ لَفِي ضَلَالٍ مُبِينٍ. فَيَكُونُ يُعَلِّمُهُمُ الْكِتَابَ وَالْحِكْمَةَ، وَلَيْسَ يُحْسِنُ أَنْ يَقْرَأَ أَوْ يَكْتُبَ؟
It is attributed to Imam al-Baqir عليه السلام:
“I said to him: People claim that the Messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وآله neither wrote nor read. He replied: ‘They have lied; may Allah curse them! How could that be when Allah says: “He is the One who raised among the ummiyyin a Messenger from among themselves, reciting His verses to them, purifying them and teaching them the Book and wisdom, although before that they were in clear error”? Could he be teaching them the Book and wisdom while not knowing how to read or write?’”
Primary references: Shaykh al-Saduq, Ilal al-Sharai, vol. 1, p. 125 in a modern edition and p. 52 in some older editions; al-Saffar, Basair al-Darajat, p. 246 in a common edition and p. 62 in older editions; Tafsir al-Ayyashi, vol. 2, p. 78; al-Majlisi, Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 16, p. 133.
Grading: The isolated chain is mursal because it contains:
رَفَعَهُ عَنْ أَبِي جَعْفَرٍ عليه السلام
“He raised it to Imam al-Baqir عليه السلام.”
One or more intermediaries are omitted, so it should not be labelled independently sahih. However, major Shia scholars used it as supporting doctrinal evidence. Al-Allamah al-Majlisi included it among the reports he reconciled by affirming that the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله possessed the ability to write but refrained for a religious wisdom. Sayyid Jafar Murtada al-Amili cited this exact narration among the evidences showing that the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله could read and write. Shaykh Ali al-Ahmadi al-Miyanji also presented it among the narrations of the Ahl al-Bayt عليهم السلام used to support the Prophet’s literacy.
References: Al-Majlisi, Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 16, pp. 133–134; Sayyid Jafar Murtada al-Amili, al-Sahih min Sirat al-Nabi al-Azam, vol. 16, pp. 117–119; Shaykh Ali al-Ahmadi al-Miyanji, Makatib al-Rasul, vol. 1, p. 94.
Its correct status is therefore: mursal in its individual chain, but preserved in several early Imami sources and used as corroborative doctrinal evidence by prominent Shia scholars. Its meaning is further reinforced by the independently sahih narration from Imam al-Sadiq عليه السلام establishing that the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله could read.
Notice the argument attributed to Imam al-Baqir عليه السلام: Allah appointed the Prophet as يُعَلِّمُهُمُ الْكِتَابَ وَالْحِكْمَةَ, “the one who teaches them the Book and wisdom.” How can later theology reduce the Teacher of the Book to someone permanently incapable of reading written words? The report does not treat that claim as praise. It rejects it with the words كَذَبُوا, “They have lied.”
4. THE PROPHET PERSONALLY READ AL-ABBAS’S LETTER
Imam al-Sadiq عليه السلام said:
كَانَ مِمَّا مَنَّ اللَّهُ عَزَّ وَجَلَّ عَلَى رَسُولِ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَآلِهِ أَنَّهُ كَانَ يَقْرَأُ وَلَا يَكْتُبُ، فَلَمَّا تَوَجَّهَ أَبُو سُفْيَانَ إِلَى أُحُدٍ كَتَبَ الْعَبَّاسُ إِلَى النَّبِيِّ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَآلِهِ، فَجَاءَهُ الْكِتَابُ وَهُوَ فِي بَعْضِ حِيطَانِ الْمَدِينَةِ فَقَرَأَهُ.
“Among the favours Allah bestowed upon the Messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وآله was that he could read but did not write. When Abu Sufyan set out toward Uhud, al-Abbas wrote to the Prophet. The letter reached him while he was in one of the gardens of Madinah, and he read it.”
References: Shaykh al-Saduq, Ilal al-Sharai; al-Majlisi, Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 16, p. 133; al-Bahrani, al-Burhan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an, vol. 5, p. 374.
Grading: Mursal because al-Bazanti narrates from an unnamed companion. It is not independently sahih, but its meaning supports the fully authentic narration establishing that the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله could read.
5. THE UMMIYYUN THEMSELVES COULD WRITE
Regarding Qur’an 62:2, Imam al-Sadiq عليه السلام said:
كَانُوا يَكْتُبُونَ، وَلَكِنْ لَمْ يَكُنْ مَعَهُمْ كِتَابٌ مِنْ عِنْدِ اللَّهِ، وَلَا بُعِثَ إِلَيْهِمْ رَسُولٌ، فَنَسَبَهُمُ اللَّهُ إِلَى الْأُمِّيِّينَ.
“They used to write, but they did not possess a Book from Allah, nor had a messenger been sent to them. Therefore, Allah attributed them to the ummiyyin.”
References: Tafsir al-Qummi, commentary on Qur’an 62:2; al-Majlisi, Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 16, p. 132; al-Fayd al-Kashani, Tafsir al-Safi, vol. 5, p. 172.
Grading: Strong or mutabar in its stated chain:
Ali ibn Ibrahim → Ibrahim ibn Hashim → Ibn Abi Umayr → Muawiyah ibn Ammar → Imam al-Sadiq عليه السلام.
The Imam explicitly says:
كَانُوا يَكْتُبُونَ
“They used to write.”
Yet Allah called them الْأُمِّيِّينَ, “the ummiyyin.” This breaks the foundation of the mainstream Sunni argument. “Ummi” does not necessarily mean someone incapable of reading and writing. According to this interpretation, the Arabs were called ummiyyin because they did not possess a previously revealed scripture.
The Qur’an itself supports this scriptural meaning when it distinguishes between:
الَّذِينَ أُوتُوا الْكِتَابَ وَالْأُمِّيِّينَ
“Those who were given the Book and the ummiyyin.”
Qur’an 3:20.
Here, “ummiyyin” naturally functions as the opposite of the People of a previous revealed Book, not necessarily as a declaration that every individual among them was unable to read.
6. SHAYKH AL-TUSI: THE QUR’AN DOES NOT SAY THAT HE WAS UNABLE
Shaykh al-Tusi writes concerning Qur’an 29:48:
وَقَالَ الْمُفَسِّرُونَ: إِنَّهُ لَمْ يَكُنِ النَّبِيُّ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَآلِهِ يُحْسِنُ الْكِتَابَةَ. وَالْآيَةُ لَا تَدُلُّ عَلَى ذَلِكَ، بَلْ فِيهَا أَنَّهُ لَمْ يَكُنْ يَكْتُبُ الْكِتَابَ، وَقَدْ لَا يَكْتُبُ الْكِتَابَ مَنْ يُحْسِنُهُ، كَمَا لَا يَكْتُبُ مَنْ لَا يُحْسِنُهُ.
“The commentators said that the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله did not know writing. But the verse does not prove that. It only states that he did not write the Book. A person who knows writing may refrain from writing, just as a person who does not know it does not write.”
Reference: Shaykh al-Tusi, al-Tibyan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an, vol. 8, p. 216.
This is the decisive linguistic distinction. The Qur’an says:
وَلَا تَخُطُّهُ بِيَمِينِكَ
“You did not write it with your right hand.”
The mainstream Sunni doctrine changes this into:
لَمْ تَكُنْ قَادِرًا عَلَى الْكِتَابَةِ
“You were incapable of writing.”
These statements are not equivalent. The Qur’an denies an act. The doctrine asserts an incapacity. “He did not write” does not logically prove “he could not write.”
7. ALLAMAH AL-TABATABAI: THE VERSE NEGATES HABITUAL PRACTICE
Allamah al-Tabatabai writes:
وَظَاهِرُ التَّعْبِيرِ فِي قَوْلِهِ: ﴿وَمَا كُنْتَ تَتْلُو﴾ إِلَخ، نَفْيُ الْعَادَةِ، أَيْ لَمْ يَكُنْ مِنْ عَادَتِكَ أَنْ تَتْلُوَ وَتَخُطَّ.
“The apparent expression in the words, ‘You did not recite,’ is the negation of habitual practice; that is, it was not your habit to recite books and write.”
He continues:
وَقِيلَ الْمُرَادُ بِهِ نَفْيُ الْقُدْرَةِ... وَالْوَجْهُ الْأَوَّلُ أَنْسَبُ بِالنِّسْبَةِ إِلَى سِيَاقِ الْحُجَّةِ.
“It has been said that the intended meaning is the negation of ability, but the first interpretation is more appropriate to the context of the argument.”
Reference: Allamah al-Tabatabai, al-Mizan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an, vol. 16, p. 139.
The verse primarily concerns what had not been the Prophet’s established public practice. It does not necessarily establish an inherent inability.
8. SAYYID AL-MURTADA: “BEFORE IT” LIMITS THE VERSE
Sayyid al-Murtada explains:
هَذِهِ الْآيَةُ تَدُلُّ عَلَى أَنَّ النَّبِيَّ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَآلِهِ مَا كَانَ يُحْسِنُ الْكِتَابَةَ قَبْلَ النُّبُوَّةِ. فَأَمَّا بَعْدَ النُّبُوَّةِ، فَالَّذِي نَعْتَقِدُهُ فِي ذَلِكَ التَّجْوِيزُ لِكَوْنِهِ عَالِمًا بِالْكِتَابَةِ وَالْقِرَاءَةِ.
“This verse indicates that the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله did not know writing before Prophethood. As for after Prophethood, we allow the possibility that he possessed knowledge of reading and writing.”
He continues:
وَظَاهِرُ الْآيَةِ يَقْتَضِي أَنَّ النَّفْيَ قَدْ تَعَلَّقَ بِمَا قَبْلَ النُّبُوَّةِ دُونَ مَا بَعْدَهَا.
“The apparent wording of the verse requires that the negation concern the period before Prophethood, not what came after it.”
Reference: Sayyid al-Murtada, quoted by al-Tabrisi in Majma al-Bayan, commentary on Qur’an 29:48.
The Qur’an deliberately says:
مِنْ قَبْلِهِ
“Before it.”
The mainstream Sunni doctrine extends the negation throughout the Prophet’s entire life. The Shia interpretation respects the limitation contained within the verse.
9. ALLAMAH AL-MAJLISI: HE POSSESSED THE ABILITY BUT REFRAINED
Al-Majlisi reconciles the reports:
يُمْكِنُ الْجَمْعُ بَيْنَ هَذِهِ الْأَخْبَارِ بِوَجْهَيْنِ: الْأَوَّلُ: أَنَّهُ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَآلِهِ كَانَ يَقْدِرُ عَلَى الْكِتَابَةِ، وَلَكِنْ كَانَ لَا يَكْتُبُ لِضَرْبٍ مِنَ الْمَصْلَحَةِ. الثَّانِي: أَنْ نَحْمِلَ أَخْبَارَ عَدَمِ الْكِتَابَةِ وَالْقِرَاءَةِ عَلَى عَدَمِ تَعَلُّمِهَا مِنَ الْبَشَرِ، وَسَائِرَ الْأَخْبَارِ عَلَى أَنَّهُ كَانَ يَقْدِرُ عَلَيْهِمَا بِالْإِعْجَازِ.
“These reports may be reconciled in two ways: First, the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله possessed the ability to write, but did not write due to a particular religious wisdom. Second, reports denying reading and writing may mean that he did not learn them from human beings, while the other reports mean that he possessed the miraculous ability to read and write.”
Al-Majlisi then asks:
وَكَيْفَ لَا يَعْلَمُ مَنْ كَانَ عَالِمًا بِعُلُومِ الْأَوَّلِينَ وَالْآخِرِينَ أَنَّ هَذِهِ النُّقُوشَ مَوْضُوعَةٌ لِهَذِهِ الْحُرُوفِ؟
“How could one who possessed the knowledge of the earlier and later generations not know that these written forms represent these letters?”
Reference: Al-Majlisi, Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 16, p. 134.
This is the coherent Shia understanding of Prophetic perfection: he did not learn from human beings, depend upon books or copy previous scriptures. He nevertheless possessed divinely granted ability. His non-use of writing was deliberate wisdom—not permanent incapacity.
10. EARLY SUPPORTING REPORTS AFFIRM COMPLETE DIVINELY GRANTED LITERACY
A narration attributed to Imam al-Jawad عليه السلام states:
وَاللَّهِ لَقَدْ كَانَ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَآلِهِ يَقْرَأُ وَيَكْتُبُ بِاثْنَتَيْنِ وَسَبْعِينَ، أَوْ قَالَ: بِثَلَاثٍ وَسَبْعِينَ لِسَانًا.
“By Allah, the Messenger of Allah صلى الله عليه وآله could read and write in seventy-two—or he said seventy-three—languages.”
References: Shaykh al-Saduq, Maani al-Akhbar, pp. 53–54; Shaykh al-Saduq, Ilal al-Sharai; al-Saffar, Basair al-Darajat.
Grading: Weak according to strict Imami rijal standards because Jafar ibn Muhammad al-Sufi lacks established classical authentication.
Another report states:
إِنَّ النَّبِيَّ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَآلِهِ كَانَ يَقْرَأُ وَيَكْتُبُ، وَيَقْرَأُ مَا لَمْ يُكْتَبْ.
“The Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله used to read and write, and he could read what had not been written.”
References: Al-Saffar, Basair al-Darajat; al-Majlisi, Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 16, p. 134.
Grading: Weak because its chain contains Ahmad ibn Hilal.
These reports must not be falsely labelled sahih. Nevertheless, they show that belief in complete divinely granted literacy existed within early Imami hadith literature and was used as supporting material by major Shia scholars.
11. AL-SUBHANI’S SANAD-BASED CONCLUSION
After examining the narrations, Ayatollah Jafar al-Subhani concludes:
فَاتَّضَحَ أَنَّ مَا يَصِحُّ مِنْ هَذِهِ الْمَأْثُورَاتِ... تَهْدِفُ إِلَى أَنَّ النَّبِيَّ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَآلِهِ كَانَ يَقْرَأُ وَلَا يَكْتُبُ أَيَّامَ رِسَالَتِهِ.
“It has become clear that the sound transmitted reports indicate that the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله could read but did not write during the days of his mission.”
Reference: Jafar al-Subhani, Mafahim al-Qur’an, vol. 3, pp. 342–343.
The minimum firmly established Imami position is therefore sufficient to refute mainstream Sunni literal illiteracy: the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله could read written material. Whether he physically wrote is a secondary sanad discussion. The claim that he could not read is directly contradicted by a sahih Imami narration.
PART THREE: THE QUR’ANIC REFUTATION OF PERMANENT ILLITERACY
1. QUR’AN 29:48 DENIES AN ACT—NOT AN ABILITY
Allah says:
وَمَا كُنْتَ تَتْلُو مِنْ قَبْلِهِ مِنْ كِتَابٍ وَلَا تَخُطُّهُ بِيَمِينِكَ إِذًا لَارْتَابَ الْمُبْطِلُونَ.
“You did not recite any scripture before it, nor did you write it with your right hand; otherwise, the falsifiers would have doubted.”
Qur’an 29:48.
The verse says:
مَا كُنْتَ تَتْلُو
“You were not reciting.”
It does not say:
مَا كُنْتَ تَسْتَطِيعُ الْقِرَاءَةَ
“You were incapable of reading.”
It says:
وَلَا تَخُطُّهُ
“You did not write it.”
It does not say:
لَا تُحْسِنُ الْكِتَابَةَ
“You did not know how to write.”
“He did not perform the act” describes conduct. “He could not perform the act” describes incapacity. The Qur’an states the former. The mainstream Sunni doctrine adds the latter.
The purpose of the Prophet’s previous non-practice is stated within the same verse:
إِذًا لَارْتَابَ الْمُبْطِلُونَ
“Otherwise, the falsifiers would have doubted.”
The purpose was to close the accusation that the Prophet ﷺ copied the Qur’an from earlier scriptures. That only requires that he had not been publicly studying and copying previous books before revelation. It does not require lifelong inability to understand writing.
2. THE PROPHET WAS THE TEACHER OF THE BOOK AND WISDOM
Allah says:
كَمَا أَرْسَلْنَا فِيكُمْ رَسُولًا مِنْكُمْ يَتْلُو عَلَيْكُمْ آيَاتِنَا وَيُزَكِّيكُمْ وَيُعَلِّمُكُمُ الْكِتَابَ وَالْحِكْمَةَ وَيُعَلِّمُكُمْ مَا لَمْ تَكُونُوا تَعْلَمُونَ.
“We sent among you a Messenger from yourselves, reciting Our verses to you, purifying you, teaching you the Book and wisdom, and teaching you what you did not know.”
Qur’an 2:151.
Allah describes the Prophet ﷺ as:
يُعَلِّمُكُمُ الْكِتَابَ
“Teaching you the Book.”
And:
يُعَلِّمُكُمْ مَا لَمْ تَكُونُوا تَعْلَمُونَ
“Teaching you what you did not know.”
The same mission was mentioned in the prayer of Prophet Ibrahim عليه السلام:
رَبَّنَا وَابْعَثْ فِيهِمْ رَسُولًا مِنْهُمْ يَتْلُو عَلَيْهِمْ آيَاتِكَ وَيُعَلِّمُهُمُ الْكِتَابَ وَالْحِكْمَةَ وَيُزَكِّيهِمْ.
“Our Lord, raise among them a Messenger from themselves who will recite Your verses to them, teach them the Book and wisdom, and purify them.”
Qur’an 2:129.
The Prophet ﷺ was not merely a passive carrier repeating memorised sounds. He was the divinely appointed Teacher of the Book. Why insist that Allah permanently withheld from the Teacher of the Book the basic ability to understand written words? The Qur’an never requires this belief.
3. HE BROUGHT AN ENTIRE NATION OUT OF CLEAR ERROR
Allah says:
لَقَدْ مَنَّ اللَّهُ عَلَى الْمُؤْمِنِينَ إِذْ بَعَثَ فِيهِمْ رَسُولًا مِنْ أَنْفُسِهِمْ يَتْلُو عَلَيْهِمْ آيَاتِهِ وَيُزَكِّيهِمْ وَيُعَلِّمُهُمُ الْكِتَابَ وَالْحِكْمَةَ وَإِنْ كَانُوا مِنْ قَبْلُ لَفِي ضَلَالٍ مُبِينٍ.
“Allah certainly bestowed a great favour upon the believers when He raised among them a Messenger from themselves, reciting His verses to them, purifying them and teaching them the Book and wisdom, although they had previously been in clear error.”
Qur’an 3:164.
The Prophet ﷺ taught belief, worship, morality, divine law, government, treaties, inheritance, commerce, family obligations, war, peace and international communication. He transformed an entire civilisation. Independence from human education is perfection. Permanent inability is not.
4. THE UMMI MESSENGER TAUGHT THE UMMIYYUN
Allah says:
هُوَ الَّذِي بَعَثَ فِي الْأُمِّيِّينَ رَسُولًا مِنْهُمْ يَتْلُو عَلَيْهِمْ آيَاتِهِ وَيُزَكِّيهِمْ وَيُعَلِّمُهُمُ الْكِتَابَ وَالْحِكْمَةَ وَإِنْ كَانُوا مِنْ قَبْلُ لَفِي ضَلَالٍ مُبِينٍ.
“He is the One who raised among the ummiyyin a Messenger from among themselves, reciting His revelations to them, purifying them and teaching them the Book and wisdom, although they had previously been in clear error.”
Qur’an 62:2.
The mainstream Sunni interpretation assumes:
Ummiyyun = people incapable of reading and writing.
Imam al-Sadiq عليه السلام says:
كَانُوا يَكْتُبُونَ
“They used to write.”
Qur’an 3:20 also contrasts:
الَّذِينَ أُوتُوا الْكِتَابَ وَالْأُمِّيِّينَ
“Those who were given the Book and the ummiyyin.”
This supports understanding “ummiyyin” as people without a previous revealed scripture. The Prophet was ummi because he was not a student of earlier scriptural communities and did not derive the Qur’an from their writings. This preserves the miracle without inventing permanent incapacity.
5. THE PROPHET WAS THE DIVINELY APPOINTED EXPLAINER OF REVELATION
Allah says:
وَأَنْزَلْنَا إِلَيْكَ الذِّكْرَ لِتُبَيِّنَ لِلنَّاسِ مَا نُزِّلَ إِلَيْهِمْ وَلَعَلَّهُمْ يَتَفَكَّرُونَ.
“We sent down the Reminder to you so that you may explain clearly to the people what was revealed to them, and so that they may reflect.”
Qur’an 16:44.
His mission was not merely recitation. Allah commanded him:
لِتُبَيِّنَ لِلنَّاسِ
“So that you may explain clearly to the people.”
He was the authoritative interpreter of the final revelation. To say that he did not require books to obtain divine knowledge is praise. To insist that Allah’s appointed explainer could not understand a written sentence is an additional limitation for which the verse provides no evidence.
6. ALLAH PERSONALLY TAUGHT HIM WHAT HE DID NOT KNOW
Allah says:
وَأَنْزَلَ اللَّهُ عَلَيْكَ الْكِتَابَ وَالْحِكْمَةَ وَعَلَّمَكَ مَا لَمْ تَكُنْ تَعْلَمُ وَكَانَ فَضْلُ اللَّهِ عَلَيْكَ عَظِيمًا.
“Allah revealed to you the Book and wisdom, taught you what you did not know, and Allah’s favour upon you has been immense.”
Qur’an 4:113.
Allah says:
وَعَلَّمَكَ مَا لَمْ تَكُنْ تَعْلَمُ
“He taught you what you did not know.”
Allah also says:
عَلَّمَهُ شَدِيدُ الْقُوَى.
“One mighty in power taught him.”
Qur’an 53:5.
If Allah granted the Prophet ﷺ knowledge of revelation, divine law, previous nations, future events and the path of salvation, upon what Qur’anic basis must Muslims insist that written language permanently remained beyond him? The Shia position says Allah’s teaching was not restricted by ordinary human methods.
7. THE FIRST REVELATION HONOURS READING AND THE PEN
Allah says:
اقْرَأْ بِاسْمِ رَبِّكَ الَّذِي خَلَقَ. اقْرَأْ وَرَبُّكَ الْأَكْرَمُ. الَّذِي عَلَّمَ بِالْقَلَمِ. عَلَّمَ الْإِنْسَانَ مَا لَمْ يَعْلَمْ.
“Read in the name of your Lord who created. Read, and your Lord is the Most Generous, who taught by the pen, taught man what he did not know.”
Qur’an 96:1, 3–5.
The first revelation begins with اقْرَأْ, “Read,” and praises Allah as الَّذِي عَلَّمَ بِالْقَلَمِ, “the One who taught by the pen.” Yet mainstream Sunni theology makes permanent inability to read written material and use the pen one of the Prophet’s defining characteristics.
The Shia explanation is more coherent: the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله did not learn through an ordinary human teacher or pen, but the Lord who taught humanity through the pen could directly grant His final Messenger knowledge of reading and writing. The miracle is divine teaching without human instruction—not lifelong inability.
8. HE WAS SENT TO ALL HUMANITY
Allah commands:
قُلْ يَا أَيُّهَا النَّاسُ إِنِّي رَسُولُ اللَّهِ إِلَيْكُمْ جَمِيعًا.
“Say: O humanity, I am Allah’s Messenger to you all.”
Qur’an 7:158.
Allah also says:
وَمَا أَرْسَلْنَاكَ إِلَّا كَافَّةً لِلنَّاسِ بَشِيرًا وَنَذِيرًا.
“We sent you only as a bearer of good news and a warner to all humanity.”
Qur’an 34:28.
He was the universal final Messenger whose revelation, law, treaties, correspondence and explanations would guide humanity until the Day of Judgement. Permanent inability to understand writing is neither required by this universal mission nor established by these verses.
FINAL COMPARISON
The mainstream Sunni doctrine says the Prophet ﷺ did not read written material, did not spell written words, did not know how to write, never wrote even one letter, remained unable to write throughout his life and needed another person to identify the location of words upon a treaty. It then treats this permanent incapacity as a miracle and perfection.
The Imami Shia position says the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله did not learn from human teachers, copy Jewish or Christian scriptures or depend upon written sources to obtain revelation. Authentic hadith establishes that he could read written material. A strong tafsir report establishes that the ummiyyun themselves could write. Qur’an 29:48 denies previous practice and copying—not necessarily ability. Major Shia scholars held that he possessed the ability to write but refrained from publicly using it for divine wisdom. The Imam al-Baqir عليه السلام report rejects the claim that the Teacher of the Book could not read or write, and prominent Shia scholars used it as supporting doctrinal evidence. Early supporting reports explicitly attribute both reading and writing to the Prophet صلى الله عليه وآله, although their individual chains are weaker.
The difference is fundamental. The mainstream Sunni interpretation turns incapacity into the miracle. The Shia interpretation makes independence from human instruction the miracle. The Sunni doctrine says, “He could not read written material.” The Shia doctrine says, “He did not need written material to acquire divine knowledge, but Allah granted him the ability to understand it.” The Sunni doctrine says, “He never wrote even one letter.” The Shia doctrine says, “Not writing does not prove inability; it may reflect deliberate divine wisdom.”
The mainstream doctrine reads:
وَلَا تَخُطُّهُ
“You did not write it,”
and transforms it into:
لَا تَقْدِرُ أَنْ تَكْتُبَ
“You were incapable of writing.”
The Shia interpretation refuses to add to the Qur’an what the Qur’an itself did not say.
FINAL VERDICT
No one is claiming that literacy was the source of the Prophet’s knowledge. His knowledge came from Allah. No one is claiming that an ordinary literate person is superior to an unlettered Prophet. The issue is whether permanent inability to read and write is truly a necessary perfection of the final Messenger.
The Qur’an never says so. The Qur’an says that he had not previously studied and copied books, so the falsifiers could not accuse him of manufacturing the Qur’an from earlier scriptures. The Qur’an repeatedly describes him as the Teacher of the Book, the Teacher of wisdom, the purifier of souls, the explainer of revelation, the guide sent to all humanity and the one whom Allah personally taught what he did not know.
The Qur’an praises reading. The Qur’an praises the pen. The Qur’an praises knowledge. Yet mainstream Sunni theology asks Muslims to treat permanent inability to read written material as one of the Prophet’s greatest miracles.
That is not required by the Qur’an. That is not what Qur’an 29:48 explicitly says. And that is not what authentic Imami hadith teaches.
The real miracle is not that the greatest teacher of humanity was incapable of recognising written words. The real miracle is that he possessed the greatest knowledge without studying under a single human teacher.
He was not taught by rabbis. He was not taught by monks. He was not taught by poets. He was not taught by philosophers. He did not copy the Torah. He did not copy the Gospel. He did not compile the Qur’an from earlier texts.
Allah Himself taught him.
The flaw is not in Muhammad صلى الله عليه وآله. The flaw lies in a doctrine that confuses freedom from human education with permanent incapacity.
The Imami Shia position is more coherent, more respectful and more faithful to the Qur’anic language: he did not learn from human beings, did not rely upon human books and did not publicly write for a divine purpose—but he could read written material, possessed divinely granted knowledge and, according to major Shia authorities, also possessed the ability to write.
That is a position worthy of the final Messenger, the universal Teacher of the Book and the greatest guide of creation.
Sunni and Shia Views on the Prophet's Literacy
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